In the last three days, ten of the thirteen wild elephants in the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh have perished.
Vijay N. Ambade, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), stated in a statement that “mycotoxins associated with kodo millet” may have been the cause of the deaths.
Take a look at what transpired.
Let’s start by defining kodo millet.
Kodra and Varagu are other names for Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) in India. India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and West Africa are among the countries that grow the crop.
According to a 2020 study titled “Nutritional, Functional Role of Kodo Millet and its Processing: A review,” the millet is said to have originated in India, and Madhya Pradesh is one of the biggest producers of the crop.
Kodo millet is grown on poor soils and is widely distributed in arid and semi-arid locations; it thrives in tropical and subtropical climates. The millet is grown in Gujarat, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, and portions of Tamil Nadu in addition to MP.
Kodo millets can be used to make a variety of well-known foods, such as rotis, papad, chakli, dosa, idli, and porridges.
Why are kodo millets grown by farmers?
For many Indian tribes and economically disadvantaged groups, kodo millet is a staple grain. Researchers claim that it is among the “hardiest crops, drought tolerant with high yield potential and excellent storage properties.”
Kodo millet is considered to be high in vitamins and minerals. Additionally, the millets are easy to digest, free of gluten, high in antioxidants, and “may have anti-carcinogenic properties,” according to researchers.
The “presence of dietary fiber in the seed coat of millet grains is beneficial to human health which affects several metabolic and digestive processes, such as effects on glucose absorption and cholesterol levels,” according to a 2019 study.
Which early instances of kodo poisoning are known to exist?
In 1922, the Indian Medical Gazette published one of the first reports of kodo millet poisoning. Anand Swarup, an assistant surgeon from Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh, documented the circumstances of about four cases of severe poisoning that were reported to the authorities on March 4, 1922.
A 50-year-old woman, a 22-year-old male, and two 12- and 9-year-old youngsters were among the patients who were brought in unconscious. Their guts washed out and they were revived. In addition to shivering from the cold, the patients had been vomiting nonstop for several hours. The patients admitted to the police that they had eaten bread prepared with flour known as “Kodon” (kodo). They started throwing up and passed out an hour after consuming.
In February 1922, Swarup reported that a landholder from Tilhar informed him that a dog that had consumed kodo-made bread had become ill, making it the first animal known to have contracted kodo poisoning.
Elephant deaths from consuming kodo millet were originally reported in a 1983 study titled “Diversity in Kodo Millet.”
The causes of kodo poisoning were initially identified in 1985 when researchers discovered “the association of the mycotoxin, cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), with kodo millet seeds causing ‘kodua poisoning,'” according to a 2021 research paper titled “Kodo poisoning: cause, science, and management.”
What causes kodo millets to get toxic?
Kodua millet is primarily grown in arid and semi-arid areas, per a 2023 study titled “Potential Risk of Cyclopiazonic Acid Toxicity in Kodua Poisoning” that was published in the journal of scientific and technical research. Nevertheless, “environmental conditions like spring and summer strike as being suitable for a certain kind of poisoning which leads to greater economic crop loss” can occur.
The output of grain and fodder is negatively impacted by fungal infections, which are more common in millet, followed by bacterial and viral infections. Ergot is a parasitic fungal endophyte that typically grows on kodo millet but can also grow in the ear heads of other grass blades. It is frequently discovered that eating such kodo grains can result in poisoning, according to the paper.
CPA (cyclopsidonic acid) is one of the main mycotoxins linked to kodo millet seeds that cause kodo poisoning, which was initially identified in the middle of the 1980s, the paper claims.
When “maturing and harvesting if the grains had encountered with rainfall, resulting in a fungal infection leading to ‘poisoned kodo,’ which is locally known as ‘Matawna Kodoo’ or ‘Matona Kodo’ in northern India,” kodo poisoning is mostly caused by the eating of kodo grains.
Since mycotoxins are robust and durable against heat, physical, and chemical treatments during food processing, “feed or food containing mycotoxins is condemned once infected.”
What effects does the poisonous grain have on animals?
“Vomiting, giddiness, and unconsciousness, small and rapid pulse, cold extremities, shaking of limbs, and tremors” are the main symptoms of kodo poisoning, which primarily affects the neurological and cardiovascular systems.
CPA is the main ingredient in kodo poisoning, and toxicity tests have revealed that it causes myocardial lesions such as degeneration, necrosis, and liver malfunction. It also affects calcium signaling in the heart, which damages cardiomyocytes and impairs cardiac function.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in the colon can be elevated by CPA, which can result in inflammation and injury to the gastrointestinal tract, according to studies. The same symptoms had been recorded by the medical professionals who cared for the ailing elephants.
The effects of the poisonous grain were also examined in mice, which had “depression symptoms and total loss of mobility.”
How can kodo toxicity be resolved?
In order to combat kodo poisoning, researchers have recommended the employment of biocontrol agents, which is the “use of an organism to fight against another organism.”
According to the researchers, several microorganisms have been demonstrated to “minimize fungal development and mycotoxin secretion.” As a “biological control strategy that appears to be effective in inoculating the fields for many years,” they also support the development of “competitive, non-toxigenic strains of the same fungi.”
This won’t be sufficient, though. In order to drastically reduce mycotoxins, farmers have also been advised to adhere to “good agricultural practices coupled with good post-harvest management like sorting and proper storage, preferably in hermetic/airtight devices.”
“Harvested heaps must be sheltered from the rain” and the “old practice of threshing by moistening the plants before threshing should be stopped” since the fungi spread quickly in the moist atmosphere.
Additionally, removing the contaminated grains “helps reduce the spread of the disease.”
When was the last time someone died from kodo poisoning?
According to Madhya Pradesh’s wildlife department officials, one elephant perished in 2022 after consuming poisonous kodo millet. However, researchers say that no human deaths from kodo millet poisoning have been documented. This is due to the fact that “washing out the stomach, by giving stimulants, hot tea or milk” could help poisoned people recover. In these cases, healing occurred after the signs and symptoms of kodo poisoning lasted for one to three days.
One of the vets who treated the elephants claimed that they administered “toxicity therapy treatment,” which included administering medications intravenously in the form of “liver tonics, multivitamins, and a general antidote.”
How are kodo millets examined for fungal infection before being harvested for human consumption?
It is challenging to identify the toxicity with the unaided eye, according to Dr. P K Chandan, Additional Deputy Director of the Kanan Pendari Zoological Garden in Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh. Because of the high moisture content and other reasons, the plant may appear fresh on the outside but may be dangerous on the inside. To find out if the millets have been poisoned, you must perform a chemical trace study.
Mycotoxins are typically found in agricultural commodities and products as “minor constituents in concentrations ranging from (sub) pg—mg/kg, meaning that the possibilities to determine mycotoxins are limited to certain trace analytical methodologies,” according to the 1986 research paper “Determination of mycotoxins.”
Mycotoxin detection in Kodo millets is often accomplished by chromatographic (separation of components of a mixture) techniques such as gas chromatography (GC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS).
On-site, quick, and economical detection techniques such as “enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular analytical tools for rapid detection” are preferred over these time-consuming procedures.
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